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What is a Quantum Computer? Complete Guide 2026

Quantum computer lab with gold dilution refrigerator, “What is a Quantum Computer?”

Right now, a revolution is unfolding in laboratories across the world—one that makes your smartphone look like an abacus. Quantum computers don't just process information faster than traditional computers; they process it in a fundamentally different way, using the strange rules of quantum physics to tackle problems that would take today's supercomputers billions of years to solve. In 2026, we're no longer asking if quantum computers will change everything—we're watching how they're already starting to reshape drug discovery, financial modeling, cryptography, and artificial intelligence. This isn't science fiction anymore. It's happening.

 

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TL;DR

  • Quantum computers use qubits that can exist in multiple states simultaneously through superposition and entanglement

  • The global market reached USD 1.5 billion in 2025 and is projected to hit USD 12-20 billion by 2030

  • Major breakthroughs in 2024-2025 include Google's Willow chip, IBM's Nighthawk processor, and quantum advantage demonstrations

  • Real applications are emerging in drug discovery, optimization, cryptography, and materials science

  • Key challenges remain around quantum error correction, decoherence, and scaling to millions of qubits

  • Investment surged to over USD 3.77 billion in equity funding during the first nine months of 2025


A quantum computer is a computational device that uses quantum mechanical phenomena—particularly superposition and entanglement—to process information. Unlike classical computers that use bits (0 or 1), quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits) that can represent 0, 1, or both simultaneously. This allows them to perform certain calculations exponentially faster than traditional computers, particularly for optimization, simulation, and cryptography problems.





Table of Contents


Background: The Quantum Revolution

The story of quantum computing begins not with computers, but with the discovery of quantum mechanics itself in the early 20th century. When Werner Heisenberg sailed to the remote North Sea Island of Helgoland in 1925, seeking relief from hay fever, he had a crucial insight that led to his first paper describing quantum mechanics (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-26). The framework was clarified and extended by scientists including Paul Dirac, who emphasized that quantum mechanics provides a theory explaining almost everything in everyday life through the Schrödinger equation.


But the connection to computing came much later. In 1959, physicist Richard Feynman suggested the notion of quantum computing in his famous talk "Plenty of Room at the Bottom" (The Quantum Insider, 2025-09-19). However, it wasn't until 1981, at the First Conference on the Physics of Computation, that Feynman formally proposed that a computer operating on quantum mechanical principles could simulate quantum systems without the exponential overhead present in classical simulations (Medium - Quantumpedia, 2023-04-02).


The field remained largely theoretical until the 1990s. In 1994, Peter Shor at AT&T's Bell Labs published his groundbreaking algorithm demonstrating that a quantum computer could factor large integers exponentially faster than classical computers—potentially breaking widely used encryption systems (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29). This drew massive attention to quantum computing as both a promise and a threat.


The first practical implementations followed. In 1998, researchers demonstrated a two-qubit quantum computer, proving the technology's feasibility (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29). By 2001, IBM and Stanford University successfully implemented Shor's algorithm on a seven-qubit processor (BTQ, 2024). In 2010, D-Wave Systems released the first commercial quantum computer, though it was a specialized quantum annealer rather than a general-purpose system (The Quantum Insider, 2025-09-19).


The year 2019 marked a pivotal moment when Google claimed "quantum supremacy" with a 54-qubit machine called Sycamore, performing a computation that would take classical computers thousands of years (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29). Though IBM contested the exact speedup claims, the achievement signaled quantum computing's transition from pure research to practical engineering.


What Makes Quantum Computers Different

Traditional computers—from your laptop to the world's most powerful supercomputers—all work the same fundamental way. They process information using bits, tiny electrical switches that are either on (1) or off (0). Every calculation, every video you stream, every message you send gets broken down into long strings of ones and zeros.


Quantum computers throw that entire model out the window.


Instead of bits, quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits. Here's where it gets fascinating: thanks to a quantum property called superposition, a qubit can be 0, 1, or both at the same time until you measure it (Microsoft Azure Quantum, 2024). Think of a coin spinning in the air—it's neither heads nor tails until it lands. While it's spinning, it's in a superposition of both states.


Classical bits are binary and can only be in one state at any given time. But qubits can exist in infinite possible superpositions of 0 and 1 (Microsoft Azure Quantum, 2024). With eight regular bits, you can represent one of 256 possible values at a time. With eight qubits, you can encode all 256 values simultaneously through superposition.


The second quantum property that makes quantum computers powerful is entanglement. When qubits become entangled, they share quantum information in a correlated way—measuring one qubit instantly provides information about the other, even if they're separated by large distances (Microsoft Azure Quantum, 2024). This correlation allows quantum computers to process information in ways that are fundamentally impossible for classical machines.


A quantum computer uses these properties—superposition and entanglement—along with quantum interference to explore many possible solutions to a problem simultaneously. It's not just about speed; it's about solving problems in a completely different way.


How Quantum Computers Work


The Quantum Computing Process

Quantum computing follows a distinct operational cycle:


1. Initialization Qubits are set to a specific starting state, usually the 0 state. This requires extremely controlled environments—often near absolute zero temperature for superconducting qubits.


2. Quantum Gate Operations Quantum gates manipulate qubits through carefully controlled operations. Unlike classical logic gates (AND, OR, NOT), quantum gates can create superposition and entanglement. Common quantum gates include:

  • Hadamard gate: Creates superposition

  • CNOT gate: Creates entanglement between two qubits

  • Pauli gates: Perform bit-flip and phase-flip operations


3. Computation The quantum processor applies sequences of quantum gates to the qubits. Through quantum parallelism, the system explores multiple computational paths simultaneously. Quantum interference amplifies the probability of correct answers while canceling out incorrect ones.


4. Measurement When you measure a qubit, the superposition collapses to either 0 or 1 with certain probabilities. This is both quantum computing's power and its challenge—you can only extract one result from many possible states.


Physical Implementation

Creating and storing qubits requires different physical approaches:


Superconducting Qubits Used by IBM, Google, and Rigetti, these circuits operate at temperatures colder than outer space (around 0.015 Kelvin). Superconducting materials allow electrical current to flow without resistance, creating quantum states. IBM's 1,121-qubit Condor processor uses this technology (SkyQuest, 2025).


Trapped Ions Companies like IonQ use individual atoms held in electromagnetic fields as qubits. Lasers manipulate these trapped ions to perform calculations. These systems can operate at room temperature in some configurations, offering cost advantages (SpinQ, 2025).


Neutral Atoms Atoms held in optical tweezers (laser beams) create flexible qubit arrays with high spatial precision. Atom Computing and QuEra use this approach (StartUs Insights, 2025-12-08).


Photonic Systems PsiQuantum and Xanadu use photons (light particles) as qubits, leveraging existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure (StartUs Insights, 2025-12-08).


Types of Quantum Computing


Gate-Based Quantum Computers

These are universal quantum computers that perform calculations using sequences of quantum gates, similar to how classical computers use logic gates. They can theoretically solve any computational problem that classical computers can solve, plus additional quantum-specific problems. IBM, Google, IonQ, and Rigetti build gate-based systems.


Quantum Annealers

Quantum annealers, pioneered by D-Wave Systems, are specialized for optimization problems. They work by finding the lowest energy state of a system—the "ground state"—which corresponds to the optimal solution. D-Wave's Advantage2 processor features over 4,400 qubits and delivers up to 25,000× speedups for some materials science tasks (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Unlike gate-based systems, quantum annealers cannot run every quantum algorithm, but they excel at specific optimization tasks found in logistics, scheduling, and machine learning.


Adiabatic Quantum Computing

Introduced by Eddie Farhi at MIT in 2000, adiabatic quantum computing depends on the adiabatic theorem. The system starts in an easy-to-prepare ground state and slowly evolves toward a state whose ground state encodes the solution to the problem (BTQ, 2024).


Topological Quantum Computing

Microsoft is developing topological qubits using Majorana particles, which are theoretically more stable against environmental noise. In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled Majorana 1, the world's first quantum processor powered by topological qubits using topoconductor materials (SpinQ, 2024).


The Current State of Quantum Computing (2026)


Where We Stand Today

As of February 2026, quantum computing has moved decisively beyond pure research into early commercial deployment. We're in what's called the NISQ era—Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum—where machines have dozens to thousands of qubits but still suffer from significant error rates (TechTarget, 2024).


Current systems can perform quantum computations with thousands of two-qubit gates, enabling early explorations of highly entangled quantum matter, though commercial value remains limited (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-10). To unlock widespread scientific and commercial applications, machines need to perform billions or trillions of two-qubit gates through quantum error correction.


Major 2024-2025 Milestones

Google's Willow Chip (December 2024) Google unveiled Willow, a 105-qubit superconducting processor that achieved exponential error suppression as qubit arrays grew from 3×3 to 7×7 lattices (StartUs Insights, 2025-12-08). The chip performed a benchmark computation in under five minutes that would take the world's fastest supercomputer 10 septillion years (PwC, 2025).


IBM's Nighthawk Processor (November 2025) IBM announced Nighthawk, featuring 120 qubits with 218 next-generation tunable couplers in a square lattice—a 20 percent increase over previous designs. The system enables circuits with 30 percent more complexity while maintaining low error rates, supporting up to 5,000 two-qubit gates initially, with plans for 10,000 gates by 2027 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


Quantinuum's Helios System (November 2025) Quantinuum launched Helios commercially, claiming the most accurate quantum computer available. The system supports at least 50 high-fidelity logical qubits and has been tested by SoftBank, JPMorgan Chase, Amgen, and BMW for commercial applications (Network World, 2025-11-19).


AWS Ocelot Chip (February 2025) Amazon Web Services unveiled Ocelot, its first proprietary quantum chip developed with Caltech. Using "cat qubits" that suppress environmental noise, the 14-physical-qubit system operates with minimal power requirements (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Microsoft's Majorana 1 (February 2025) Microsoft unveiled the world's first topological qubit processor using topoconductor materials to control Majorana particles (SpinQ, 2024; The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Error Correction Breakthrough

The most significant development of 2025 was dramatic progress in quantum error correction. Research groups published 120 peer-reviewed QEC papers in the first ten months of 2025, up from just 36 in all of 2024 (StartUs Insights, 2025-12-08). Error rates have reached record lows of 0.000015 percent per operation in some systems (SpinQ, 2025).


IBM demonstrated logical error rates of 0.13 percent for distance-3 surface codes and 0.068 percent for distance-5 codes (Preprints.org, 2025-09-26). QuEra published algorithmic fault tolerance techniques reducing quantum error correction overhead by up to 100 times (SpinQ, 2025).


Real-World Applications and Case Studies


Quantum computers can simulate molecular interactions with unprecedented accuracy, accelerating pharmaceutical development.


Case Study: Japan Tobacco Pharmaceutical Collaboration D-Wave Systems partnered with Japan Tobacco's pharmaceutical unit to demonstrate quantum computing's value in drug discovery using their Advantage2 processor (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06). The collaboration focuses on screening complex molecules and mapping drug-target interactions.


Case Study: IonQ and Ansys Medical Device Simulation (March 2025) IonQ and Ansys achieved a landmark milestone by running a medical device simulation on IonQ's 36-qubit computer that outperformed classical high-performance computing by 12 percent—one of the first documented cases of quantum computing delivering practical advantage over classical methods in real-world applications (SpinQ, 2025).


Case Study: Quantinuum and JPMorgan Chase (June 2024) Quantinuum and JPMorgan Chase demonstrated the first quantum computer to defy classical simulation using Random Circuit Sampling, achieving a milestone in commercially relevant quantum computing (Quantinuum, 2025). JPMorgan Chase has announced a USD 10 billion investment initiative specifically naming quantum computing as a strategic technology (SpinQ, 2025).


BCG projects that quantum computers, along with quantum-inspired algorithms, can generate USD 2 billion to USD 5 billion in operating income for financial institutions over the next decade (BCG, 2024).


Optimization and Logistics

Case Study: BMW Fuel Cell Research (2025) BMW is using Quantinuum's Helios system for fuel cell research, exploring quantum computing's ability to optimize complex materials and chemical processes (Network World, 2025-11-19).


Case Study: D-Wave and Davidson Technologies (2025) D-Wave deployed a secure U.S.-based quantum annealing system with Davidson Technologies for sensitive government and defense applications, focusing on optimization problems (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Cryptography and Cybersecurity

Commercial Randomness Generation (2025) Quantinuum announced the first commercial application for quantum computers: generating certifiably random numbers for cryptographic security. The system produces randomness using quantum mechanics' fundamental unpredictability, offering near-total protection for security-sensitive applications (Quantinuum, 2025).


Materials Science

D-Wave's Advantage2 processor delivers up to 25,000× speedups for some materials science simulations with 5× higher precision for high-complexity applications (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Case Study: Fujitsu and RIKEN (April 2025) Fujitsu and Japan's RIKEN research institute announced a 256-qubit superconducting quantum computer—four times larger than their 2023 system—with plans for a 1,000-qubit machine by 2026 (SpinQ, 2025).


Major Players and Technologies


IBM

IBM has pursued superconducting quantum computing since the 1990s. The company achieved 127 qubits in 2021, 433 qubits in 2022, and more than 1,000 qubits in late 2023 (TechTarget, 2024). Their 2025 roadmap includes the Kookaburra processor with 1,386 qubits in a multi-chip configuration, connecting three chips into a 4,158-qubit system (SpinQ, 2025).


IBM's Condor processor surpassed 1,121 qubits, with plans exceeding 4,000 qubits (SpinQ, 2025). The company expects the first verified quantum advantage cases by the end of 2026 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


Google Quantum AI

Google achieved claimed quantum supremacy in 2019 with Sycamore. Their December 2024 Willow chip demonstrated exponential error suppression across increasing qubit group sizes—a crucial milestone toward fault-tolerant computing (SpinQ, 2024).


IonQ

IonQ uses trapped-ion technology and has aggressively expanded through acquisitions. The company acquired Qubitekk in January 2025 (strengthening quantum-networking capabilities), secured control of ID Quantique in February 2025 (quantum-safe cryptography), and announced acquisition of Oxford Ionics for approximately USD 1.075 billion in June 2025 (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


IonQ's systems include 36-qubit and larger machines, with roadmap targeting fault-tolerant systems with over two million physical qubits by 2030. The company raised USD 1 billion in 2025, bringing its cash position to approximately USD 1.6 billion (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


D-Wave Systems

D-Wave pioneered commercial quantum annealing. Their Advantage2 processor, launched in 2024, includes over 4,400 qubits with improved coherence and 20-way qubit connectivity (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06). The company's January 2025 Leap Quantum LaunchPad program offers startups three-month free trials to access 5,000+ qubit systems.


Rigetti Computing

Rigetti's current systems include the 84-qubit Ankaa-2, achieving 98 percent median fidelity. Future systems target 99+ percent fidelity with over 100 qubits by end of 2025 (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06). In October 2024, Rigetti achieved breakthrough in real-time, low-latency quantum error correction with Riverlane (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


Quantinuum

Formed from Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum Computing, Quantinuum achieved a USD 10 billion valuation in 2025 (Riverlane, 2025). Their Helios device, launched commercially in November 2025, supports at least 50 high-fidelity logical qubits (Network World, 2025-11-19).


PsiQuantum

PsiQuantum focuses on photonic quantum computers with over USD 1.3 billion in funding. The company is expected to pursue a 2026 public offering (SpinQ, 2025). In September 2025, PsiQuantum secured a USD 1 billion funding round and announced an ambitious AUD 940 million project to deliver a one-million physical qubit system in Brisbane, Australia by 2027 (PwC, 2025; The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06).


The Quantum Advantage Race

"Quantum advantage" (also called "quantum supremacy") describes the point when a quantum computer solves a problem better than all classical methods. While Google's 2019 claim sparked debate—IBM argued the calculation could be done on classical computers much faster than Google estimated—the race has intensified.


IBM expects the first verified quantum advantage cases by end of 2026 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12). To encourage rigorous validation, IBM, Algorithmiq, Flatiron Institute researchers, and BlueQubit contribute to an open quantum advantage tracker monitoring emerging demonstrations (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


The IonQ-Ansys medical device simulation in March 2025, which outperformed classical computing by 12 percent, represents one of the first documented quantum advantages in practical applications (SpinQ, 2025).


Current NISQ machines can perform thousands of two-qubit gates. Researchers estimate that widespread quantum advantage requires machines capable of billions or trillions of gates—achievable only through quantum error correction (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-10).


Notably, Craig Gidney reduced the physical qubit count for running cryptographically relevant quantum algorithms to less than one million physical qubits, down from earlier estimates of 20 million (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-10). One recent paper demonstrated that breaking RSA encryption may require only one million qubits through combined improvements in software, error correction, and qubit quality (Riverlane, 2025).


Challenges and Limitations


Quantum Decoherence

Qubits are extraordinarily fragile. Interaction with the environment causes loss of coherence, destroying the superposition and entanglement that give quantum computers their power. Decoherence times in current hardware typically range from microseconds to milliseconds, imposing severe constraints on computational depth (MDPI Electronics, 2025-11-29).


Think of it like this: imagine trying to balance a pencil on its tip. The slightest vibration, air current, or temperature change knocks it over. Qubits are millions of times more sensitive. Environmental noise, temperature fluctuations, and even nearby qubits can cause decoherence (McKinsey, 2025-12-08).


Quantum Error Correction: The Defining Challenge

Real-time quantum error correction has become "the industry's defining engineering hurdle," according to the Quantum Error Correction Report 2025 (The Quantum Insider, 2025-11-19). The barrier is no longer only the qubits themselves—it's the classical electronics that must process millions of error signals per second and feed back corrections within about one microsecond.


Data rates in fully scaled systems could reach hundreds of terabytes per second—comparable to a single machine processing the streaming load of a global video platform every second (The Quantum Insider, 2025-11-19).


Quantum error correction uses multiple noisy physical qubits to create single, more reliable logical qubits by distributing quantum information redundantly (Riverlane, 2025). Current systems require roughly 1,000 physical qubits to create one stable logical qubit, though this ratio is improving.


Scalability

Building larger quantum systems requires overcoming immense engineering challenges:


Wiring and Signal Delivery Most platforms rely on individual control lines for each qubit. Adding more wiring becomes impractical as systems move toward millions of qubits—a problem known as the "tyranny of numbers" faced by 1960s computer engineers (ScienceDaily, 2026-01-27).


Cryogenic Requirements Superconducting qubits operate at 0.015 Kelvin—colder than outer space. Scaling means managing complex refrigeration systems (ScienceDaily, 2025-12-26).


Qubit Quality Achieving consistent, high-quality qubits through reliable manufacturing remains difficult. NIST research through the SQMS Nanofabrication Taskforce achieved coherence times up to 0.6 milliseconds for best-performing qubits—a significant advancement but still limiting (SpinQ, 2025).


Talent Shortage

The quantum industry faces a severe and growing skills gap. Only one qualified candidate exists for every three specialized quantum positions globally (SpinQ, 2025). For quantum error correction specifically, only 600-700 QEC specialists exist worldwide, yet 5,000-16,000 are needed by 2030. The industry faces a substantial pipeline problem, as QEC training can take up to 10 years (Riverlane, 2025).


U.S. quantum-related job postings tripled from 2011 to mid-2024. McKinsey estimates over 250,000 new quantum professionals will be needed globally by 2030 (SpinQ, 2025).


Cost

Quantum computers remain expensive. Development and deployment costs are beyond what small organizations can afford (SkyQuest, 2025). A single fault-tolerant quantum computer requires investments ranging from hundreds of millions to billions of dollars when including infrastructure, talent, and ongoing operational costs.


Market Size and Investment Landscape


Market Valuation

The global quantum computing market shows explosive growth projections with slight variations across research firms:

  • Fortune Business Insights: USD 1,160.1 million in 2024, growing to USD 1,531.3 million in 2025 and USD 12,620.7 million by 2032 (CAGR 34.8%) (Fortune Business Insights, 2026-01-19)

  • Research Nester: USD 1.20 billion in 2025, reaching USD 9.55 billion by 2035 (CAGR 23.1%) (Research Nester, 2025-10-07)

  • Grand View Research: USD 1.42 billion in 2024, projected USD 4.24 billion by 2030 (CAGR 20.5%) (Grand View Research, 2024)

  • BCC Research: USD 1.6 billion in 2025, reaching USD 7.3 billion by 2030 (CAGR 34.6%) (BCC Research, 2025-06-24)

  • MarketsandMarkets: USD 3.52 billion in 2025, projected USD 20.20 billion by 2030 (CAGR 41.8%) (MarketsandMarkets, 2025)

  • SkyQuest: USD 1.54 billion in 2024, growing to USD 1.98 billion in 2025 and USD 14.51 billion by 2033 (CAGR 28.3%) (SkyQuest, 2025)


Despite varying figures, all sources agree on robust double-digit growth, positioning quantum computing as one of the fastest-growing technology sectors.


Investment Surge

Quantum computing companies raised USD 3.77 billion in equity funding during the first nine months of 2025—nearly triple the USD 1.3 billion raised in all of 2024 (Network World, 2025-11-19). Venture capital funding witnessed USD 1.25 billion in the first three quarters of 2025 alone, more than doubling previous year figures (SpinQ, 2025).


McKinsey reports nearly USD 2 billion invested in quantum startups in 2024, representing a 50 percent increase from 2023 (SpinQ, 2025).


Government Investment

National governments invested USD 10 billion by April 2025, up from USD 1.8 billion in all of 2024 (Network World, 2025-11-19). Global government funding for quantum computing has reached approximately USD 50 billion (Riverlane, 2025-11-19).


Japan leads public quantum investment with nearly USD 8 billion (USD 7.9 billion allocated in 2025), surpassing the United States' USD 7.7 billion. The U.S. National Quantum Initiative invested USD 2.5 billion in programs between 2019 and 2024 (SpinQ, 2025).


China's national venture fund committed RMB 1 trillion (approximately USD 140 billion) for quantum technology development (SpinQ, 2025). The European Union's Quantum Flagship Program coordinates research across member states with over USD 1 billion funding (SkyQuest, 2025).


Germany invested USD 3 billion for quantum computing development through 2026 (Research Nester, 2025-10-07).


Stock Market Performance

Public quantum computing companies delivered extraordinary returns in 2025:

  • D-Wave Quantum (NYSE: QBTS): surged over 3,700 percent (SpinQ, 2025)

  • IonQ (NYSE: IONQ): experienced 700 percent surge (SpinQ, 2025)

  • Rigetti Computing (NASDAQ: RGTI): reached all-time highs with 5,700 percent gains (SpinQ, 2025)


According to Motley Fool, share prices have increased by more than 3,000 percent over the past year across major quantum stocks (Network World, 2025-11-19).


Private Valuations

Private quantum companies achieved multi-billion-dollar valuations:

  • Quantinuum: USD 10 billion (Riverlane, 2025)

  • PsiQuantum: USD 7 billion (Riverlane, 2025)

  • SandboxAQ: USD 5.75 billion (Riverlane, 2025)

  • IQM: Over USD 1 billion (Riverlane, 2025)


Infleqtion will merge with Churchill Capital Corp X in a SPAC transaction valuing the firm at USD 1.8 billion, raising USD 540 million, with trading expected by late 2025 or early 2026 (SpinQ, 2025).


Timeline: From Theory to Reality


1925-1980s: Theoretical Foundations

  • 1925: Werner Heisenberg develops quantum mechanics framework (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-26)

  • 1959: Richard Feynman suggests quantum computing concept in "Plenty of Room at the Bottom" (The Quantum Insider, 2025-09-19)

  • 1981: Feynman formally proposes quantum computers for simulating quantum systems (Medium - Quantumpedia, 2023-04-02)

  • 1985: David Deutsch describes universal quantum computer (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29)


1990s: Algorithmic Breakthroughs

  • 1994: Peter Shor publishes factorization algorithm, drawing massive attention to quantum computing (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29)

  • 1995: Dave Wineland and Christopher Monroe at NIST demonstrate first quantum logic gate; Shor discovers first quantum error-correction codes (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 1996: Lov Grover introduces quantum search algorithm (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 1998: First two-qubit quantum computer demonstrated (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29)


2000s: Early Hardware

  • 2001: IBM and Stanford implement Shor's algorithm on 7-qubit processor (BTQ, 2024)

  • 2007: D-Wave demonstrates 28-qubit quantum annealer (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29)

  • 2010: D-Wave One released as first commercial quantum computer (The Quantum Insider, 2025-09-19)


2010s: Scaling Begins

  • 2016: IBM makes quantum computing available on IBM Cloud (The Quantum Insider, 2025-09-19)

  • 2017: Intel and IBM extend superconducting approaches to about 50 qubits (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 2018: John Preskill coins term NISQ (Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum) (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 2019: Google claims quantum supremacy with 53-qubit Sycamore (Wikipedia, 2026-01-29)


2020-2023: Rapid Progress

  • 2020: Chinese researchers demonstrate photon-based quantum simulator (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 2021: IBM achieves 127 qubits (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 2022: IBM reaches 433 qubits (TechTarget, 2024)

  • 2023: IBM exceeds 1,000 qubits; QuEra and Harvard demonstrate 48-logical-qubit computer (TechTarget, 2024)


2024-2025: Commercial Transition

  • 2024: D-Wave launches Advantage2 with 4,400+ qubits (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06)

  • December 2024: Google unveils Willow chip with exponential error suppression (SpinQ, 2024)

  • January 2025: IonQ acquires Qubitekk; D-Wave launches Leap Quantum LaunchPad (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06)

  • February 2025: IonQ secures ID Quantique; AWS unveils Ocelot chip; Microsoft announces Majorana 1 (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06; SpinQ, 2024)

  • March 2025: IonQ and Ansys demonstrate quantum advantage in medical device simulation (SpinQ, 2025)

  • April 2025: Fujitsu and RIKEN announce 256-qubit system (SpinQ, 2025)

  • June 2025: IonQ announces USD 1.075 billion acquisition of Oxford Ionics (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06)

  • November 2025: IBM delivers Nighthawk processor; Quantinuum launches Helios commercially (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12; Network World, 2025-11-19)


2026: Current State

By February 2026, the industry has transitioned from NISQ demonstrations to pursuit of fault-tolerant systems. IBM expects first verified quantum advantage cases by end of 2026 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


Pros and Cons


Advantages

Exponential Speedup for Specific Problems Quantum computers can solve certain problems exponentially faster than classical computers—particularly optimization, molecular simulation, and specific cryptographic tasks.


Drug Discovery Acceleration Pharmaceutical companies can screen larger, more complex molecules and better map drug-target interactions (BCG, 2024).


Financial Optimization Banks and investment firms can optimize portfolios, assess risk, and detect fraud more effectively (BCG, 2024).


Materials Science Innovation Quantum simulations enable discovery of new materials, batteries, catalysts, and superconductors that would take years or decades to discover classically.


Enhanced Security Quantum key distribution provides theoretically unbreakable encryption based on fundamental physics laws.


Climate and Energy Applications Quantum computers can optimize power grids, improve carbon capture methods, and accelerate clean energy development.


Disadvantages

Extreme Fragility Qubits are extraordinarily sensitive to environmental noise, requiring expensive isolation and cryogenic cooling.


High Error Rates Current systems have error rates around 0.1-1 percent per operation, requiring sophisticated error correction.


Limited Problem Set Quantum computers excel at specific problems but won't replace classical computers for most everyday computing tasks.


Immense Cost Building and operating quantum computers costs hundreds of millions to billions of dollars.


Talent Shortage Only one qualified candidate exists for every three quantum positions globally (SpinQ, 2025).


Cryptographic Threat Sufficiently powerful quantum computers will break current encryption systems, requiring worldwide transition to post-quantum cryptography.


Long Development Timeline Fault-tolerant, utility-scale quantum computers likely won't arrive until late 2020s or early 2030s.


Myths vs Facts


Myth 1: Quantum computers will replace classical computers

Fact: Quantum computers excel at specific problems but won't replace classical computers. Most everyday computing—email, web browsing, word processing, even most business applications—will continue using classical computers. Quantum computers are specialized tools for particular problems.


Myth 2: Quantum computers are infinitely fast

Fact: Quantum computers provide exponential speedup for certain problems, not infinite speed. For many tasks, classical computers remain faster and more practical.


Myth 3: We already have practical quantum computers

Fact: While we have working quantum computers, they're in early stages analogous to vacuum-tube-era classical computers. Scientists compare today's quantum computers to the pre-transistor era (ScienceDaily, 2026-01-27).


Myth 4: Quantum computers work by trying all answers simultaneously

Fact: While qubits can exist in superposition of multiple states, quantum algorithms use interference to amplify correct answers and cancel incorrect ones—a more nuanced process than "trying everything at once."


Myth 5: Any quantum computer can break current encryption

Fact: Breaking RSA encryption requires millions of high-quality, error-corrected qubits. Current systems have hundreds to thousands of noisy qubits. Cryptographically relevant quantum computers remain years away.


Myth 6: Quantum computers violate laws of physics

Fact: Quantum computers operate entirely within quantum mechanics' laws—one of the most tested theories in science. They don't violate causality or enable faster-than-light communication.


Myth 7: All qubit types are equally viable

Fact: Different qubit modalities (superconducting, trapped ion, neutral atom, photonic, topological) have different strengths, weaknesses, and maturity levels. The industry hasn't converged on a single approach.


How to Prepare for the Quantum Era


For Businesses

1. Identify Quantum-Relevant Use Cases Assess whether your industry has problems quantum computers could solve—optimization, simulation, machine learning, cryptography. Finance, pharmaceuticals, logistics, chemicals, and materials science show particular promise.


2. Develop Quantum Literacy Train leadership and technical staff on quantum computing basics, capabilities, and limitations. Microsoft's Quantum Ready Initiative helps enterprises sort out use cases (Constellation Research, 2025-12-29).


3. Experiment with Quantum-as-a-Service Platforms like IBM Quantum Cloud, Azure Quantum, Amazon Braket, and D-Wave's LEAP provide cloud access to quantum hardware without massive capital investment (Sectigo, 2025-10-25).


4. Implement Post-Quantum Cryptography Transition to NIST's post-quantum encryption standards. The White House initiated quantum policy acceleration for federal post-quantum cryptography migration (SpinQ, 2025). Experts estimate transitioning government and enterprise networks could require a decade due to legacy infrastructure complexity.


5. Build Partnerships Collaborate with quantum companies, universities, and research institutions. Many vendors offer pilot programs and proof-of-concept projects.


For Researchers and Students

1. Build Foundational Knowledge Master quantum mechanics, linear algebra, probability theory, and computer science fundamentals. Quantum computing sits at the intersection of physics, mathematics, and computer science.


2. Learn Quantum Programming Explore quantum programming languages and frameworks:

  • Qiskit (IBM's open-source framework)

  • Cirq (Google's quantum programming framework)

  • Q# (Microsoft's quantum programming language)

  • PennyLane (quantum machine learning library)


3. Access Online Resources IBM Quantum Learning offers free courses. Microsoft's Azure Quantum provides documentation and tutorials. Universities worldwide now offer quantum computing courses.


4. Pursue Specialized Training Given the severe talent shortage (only 600-700 QEC specialists worldwide, with 5,000-16,000 needed by 2030), specialized skills command premium salaries and career opportunities (Riverlane, 2025).


5. Join the Community Participate in quantum computing competitions, hackathons, and forums. Follow research publications and attend conferences.


For Policymakers

1. Support Quantum Research and Development Continue funding quantum research through national initiatives. The U.S. National Quantum Initiative provides a model.


2. Invest in Education and Workforce Development Address the talent shortage through university programs, vocational training, and industry partnerships. IBM announced commitment to skill 5 million learners across India in AI, cybersecurity, and quantum computing by 2030 (Precedence Research, 2025-12-23).


3. Establish Cybersecurity Standards Mandate post-quantum cryptography adoption timelines for government systems and critical infrastructure.


4. Foster International Collaboration Quantum computing advances humanity's collective knowledge. International cooperation accelerates progress while managing security concerns.


Future Outlook


2026-2028: Near-Term Expectations

Experts predict 2026 will see substantial advances in quantum platforms supporting fault-tolerant computation and significant demonstrations of hybrid quantum-classical applications (The Quantum Insider, 2025-12-30).


IBM expects the first verified quantum advantage cases confirmed by the wider community by end of 2026 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12). Hardware demonstrations will feature more realistic applications using error correction with complex operations previously missing from demonstrations.


By 2028, IBM's Nighthawk-based systems could support up to 15,000 two-qubit gates enabled by 1,000 or more connected qubits (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


2029-2030: Fault-Tolerant Era

IBM targets fault-tolerant quantum computing by 2029 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12). Quantum computers with potential utility are expected to emerge around 2029, making post-quantum cryptography investments critical (The Quantum Insider, 2025-12-30).


IonQ's roadmap targets fault-tolerant systems with over two million physical qubits by 2030 (The Quantum Insider, 2026-02-06). PsiQuantum aims to deliver a one-million physical qubit system in Brisbane by 2027 (PwC, 2025).


The quantum computing market could reach USD 12-20 billion by 2030 across various projections, with more aggressive forecasts suggesting USD 20.2 billion by 2030 at 41.8 percent CAGR (SpinQ, 2025).


Long-Term Potential

Scientists at a quantum computing research conference note that "patience has been a key element in many landmark developments" and point to "the importance of tempering timeline expectations in quantum technologies" (ScienceDaily, 2026-01-27).


The technology has reached what researchers call its "transistor moment"—analogous to classical computing before transistors reshaped the industry (ScienceDaily, 2026-01-27). History suggests transformative breakthroughs, including lithography techniques and new transistor materials, took years or decades from research labs to industrial production.


Applications expected in the next decade include:

  • Drug discovery: Faster pharmaceutical development and personalized medicine

  • Climate modeling: Improved weather prediction and climate change mitigation strategies

  • AI advancement: Quantum machine learning for problems classical AI struggles with

  • Financial modeling: More accurate risk assessment and fraud detection

  • Materials science: Discovery of superconductors, battery materials, and catalysts

  • Logistics optimization: Supply chain efficiency and traffic management


FAQ


1. What makes quantum computers so powerful?

Quantum computers use qubits that can exist in superposition (multiple states simultaneously) and become entangled (correlated across distances). These properties allow quantum computers to explore many solution paths simultaneously through quantum parallelism, solving certain problems exponentially faster than classical computers.


2. Can I buy a quantum computer?

Yes, but they're extremely expensive and impractical for most users. D-Wave sells quantum annealers commercially. Most people access quantum computers through cloud services like IBM Quantum Cloud, Azure Quantum, or Amazon Braket, which offer pay-per-use access without massive capital investment.


3. When will quantum computers break encryption?

Cryptographically relevant quantum computers capable of breaking RSA encryption remain years away, likely late 2020s or early 2030s. Craig Gidney's recent work suggests less than one million physical qubits might suffice (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-10), down from earlier estimates of 20 million. Organizations should implement post-quantum cryptography now to protect against "harvest now, decrypt later" attacks.


4. What problems can quantum computers solve that classical computers can't?

Quantum computers excel at optimization (finding best solutions among many options), molecular simulation (drug discovery, materials science), certain machine learning tasks, and breaking specific cryptographic schemes. However, they won't replace classical computers for most everyday computing tasks.


5. How cold do quantum computers need to be?

Superconducting quantum computers operate at approximately 0.015 Kelvin—colder than outer space (ScienceDaily, 2025-12-26). However, some technologies like trapped ions can operate at room temperature in certain configurations.


6. What is quantum supremacy or quantum advantage?

Quantum advantage describes when a quantum computer solves a problem better than all classical methods. Google claimed this in 2019 with Sycamore, though IBM contested the speedup claims. IBM expects verified quantum advantage cases by end of 2026 (IBM Newsroom, 2025-11-12).


7. How many qubits does a useful quantum computer need?

It depends on the problem. Current systems have dozens to thousands of qubits. Early applications might need thousands of high-quality logical qubits. Breaking RSA encryption requires roughly one million physical qubits (Quantum Frontiers, 2025-12-10). Utility-scale systems for widespread commercial applications need millions of physical qubits organized into thousands of logical qubits.


8. What is quantum error correction and why is it necessary?

Qubits are extremely fragile and make errors frequently. Quantum error correction uses multiple physical qubits to create single, more reliable logical qubits by distributing information redundantly. Current systems require roughly 1,000 physical qubits per logical qubit. Error correction is the industry's defining challenge for scaling quantum computers (The Quantum Insider, 2025-11-19).


9. What jobs exist in quantum computing?

Roles include quantum hardware engineers, quantum software developers, quantum algorithm researchers, quantum error correction specialists, quantum applications developers, and quantum business development. The field faces severe talent shortages—only one qualified candidate exists for every three positions (SpinQ, 2025).


10. Is quantum computing related to artificial intelligence?

Yes, quantum computing could accelerate certain AI and machine learning tasks, particularly those involving optimization, sampling, or processing high-dimensional data. Companies like Microsoft are integrating AI with quantum computing through platforms like Azure Quantum Elements (SkyQuest, 2025). However, most current AI runs efficiently on classical computers and specialized hardware like GPUs.


11. How much does quantum computing cost?

Cloud access costs range from a few dollars to thousands of dollars per hour depending on the system. Building a quantum computer costs hundreds of millions to billions of dollars including infrastructure, talent, and operational expenses. The post-quantum cryptography market alone is valued at USD 1.9 billion in 2025, projected to reach USD 12.4 billion by 2035 (StartUs Insights, 2025-12-08).


12. What is the NISQ era?

NISQ stands for "Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum." Coined by John Preskill in 2018, it describes current quantum computers with dozens to thousands of qubits that lack full error correction. NISQ systems can run limited quantum algorithms but haven't achieved large-scale quantum advantage (TechTarget, 2024).


13. Can quantum computers simulate the universe?

Quantum computers can efficiently simulate quantum systems like molecules and materials—problems classical computers struggle with. Simulating the entire universe remains far beyond any foreseeable quantum computer's capability.


14. What are logical qubits versus physical qubits?

Physical qubits are the actual quantum systems (ions, superconducting circuits, atoms). They're noisy and error-prone. Logical qubits are created by using multiple physical qubits through error correction to create stable, reliable qubits for computation. Current systems need roughly 1,000 physical qubits per logical qubit.


15. Which companies lead quantum computing?

Major players include IBM, Google, Microsoft, Amazon, IonQ, Rigetti, D-Wave, Quantinuum, PsiQuantum, Atom Computing, QuEra, Xanadu, and Intel. China has major efforts through companies like Baidu and government research institutions. The landscape is rapidly evolving with regular breakthroughs and consolidation.


16. What programming languages do quantum computers use?

Popular quantum programming frameworks include Qiskit (Python-based, IBM), Cirq (Python-based, Google), Q# (Microsoft), PennyLane (quantum machine learning), and Silq. Most use Python bindings for accessibility.


17. Can quantum computers factor large numbers instantly?

No. Shor's algorithm allows quantum computers to factor large numbers exponentially faster than classical computers, but it's not instant. A cryptographically relevant quantum computer factoring a 2048-bit number might take hours to days, not seconds. Such systems don't exist yet.


18. What is quantum annealing?

Quantum annealing is a specialized quantum computing approach for optimization problems. Systems start in an easy-to-prepare state and slowly evolve toward a state whose lowest energy represents the optimal solution. D-Wave pioneered commercial quantum annealers (BTQ, 2024).


19. How reliable are current quantum computers?

Current systems have error rates around 0.1-1 percent per operation, though the best systems achieve rates as low as 0.000015 percent (SpinQ, 2025). IBM demonstrated logical error rates of 0.13 percent for distance-3 surface codes (Preprints.org, 2025-09-26). Practical applications require much lower error rates, achievable through continued error correction improvements.


20. What is post-quantum cryptography?

Post-quantum cryptography comprises encryption algorithms resistant to attacks from both classical and quantum computers. NIST finalized three post-quantum encryption standards in August 2024: ML-KEM, ML-DSA, and SLH-DSA (SpinQ, 2025). Organizations should begin transitioning now.


Key Takeaways

  1. Quantum computers use fundamentally different principles—qubits, superposition, and entanglement—enabling exponential speedup for specific problems like optimization, molecular simulation, and certain cryptographic tasks.


  2. The industry reached an inflection point in 2024-2025, transitioning from pure research to early commercial applications. Major breakthroughs include Google's Willow chip, IBM's Nighthawk processor, and the first documented quantum advantage in practical applications.


  3. The global market is exploding, growing from USD 1.2-1.6 billion in 2025 to projected USD 12-20 billion by 2030. Quantum companies raised USD 3.77 billion in equity funding in the first nine months of 2025—nearly triple 2024's total.


  4. Real applications are emerging in drug discovery (IonQ-Ansys medical device simulation), finance (JPMorgan Chase commercial projects), materials science (D-Wave 25,000× speedups), and cybersecurity (Quantinuum's commercial random number generation).


  5. Quantum error correction is the defining challenge for scaling. The industry published 120 peer-reviewed QEC papers in the first ten months of 2025, up from 36 in 2024, marking a shift from theory to practical implementation.


  6. Severe talent shortage threatens progress—only one qualified candidate exists for every three quantum positions. For quantum error correction, only 600-700 specialists exist globally, with 5,000-16,000 needed by 2030.


  7. IBM expects verified quantum advantage by end of 2026. Multiple companies target fault-tolerant systems by 2029, with utility-scale commercial applications in the early 2030s.


  8. Organizations must implement post-quantum cryptography now to protect against "harvest now, decrypt later" attacks. NIST finalized three post-quantum standards in August 2024, ready for immediate implementation.


  9. Cloud-based quantum computing democratizes access through IBM Quantum Cloud, Azure Quantum, Amazon Braket, and D-Wave LEAP, enabling experimentation without massive capital investment.


  10. Scientists compare today's quantum computers to the pre-transistor era—working systems exist, but scaling requires major engineering breakthroughs. History suggests patience is critical, as transformative technologies took years or decades from research to industrial production.


Actionable Next Steps

  1. 1. Assess Your Quantum Readiness Evaluate whether your industry or organization has problems quantum computers could solve. Focus on optimization, simulation, cryptography, or machine learning challenges where quantum provides potential advantage.


  2. Experiment with Cloud Quantum Platforms Create accounts on IBM Quantum Learning, Microsoft Azure Quantum, or Amazon Braket. Run simple quantum circuits to understand the technology hands-on. Most platforms offer free tiers or credits.


  3. Implement Post-Quantum Cryptography If you manage IT infrastructure or security, begin transitioning to NIST's post-quantum encryption standards (ML-KEM, ML-DSA, SLH-DSA). Inventory systems using vulnerable encryption and develop migration plans.


  4. Develop Internal Quantum Literacy Train leadership and technical teams on quantum computing basics, capabilities, and limitations. Consider bringing in quantum consultants or partnering with universities.


  5. Explore Quantum-as-a-Service Partnerships Contact quantum computing vendors about pilot programs, proof-of-concept projects, or industry-specific quantum applications. Many companies offer structured programs for quantum exploration.


  6. Invest in Quantum Skills Development For individuals: Learn quantum programming through online courses, certifications, and degree programs. For organizations: Hire quantum specialists or develop internal training programs to address the talent shortage.


  7. Monitor Quantum Developments Follow quantum computing news through sources like The Quantum Insider, Nature, arXiv preprints, and company announcements. The field advances rapidly—staying informed is critical.


  8. Join Quantum Communities Participate in quantum computing forums, attend conferences (like Q2B or QEC), and engage with open-source quantum projects. Community involvement accelerates learning and creates collaboration opportunities.


  9. Consider Strategic Quantum Investments For investors: Research quantum computing companies (public and private), quantum-focused ETFs, and venture funds. Understand that quantum represents high-risk, high-reward opportunities with 5-10 year horizons.


  10. Build Cross-Functional Quantum Teams Successful quantum projects require physicists, computer scientists, domain experts, and business strategists. Assemble diverse teams combining quantum expertise with deep industry knowledge.


Glossary

  1. Qubit (Quantum Bit): The fundamental unit of quantum information. Unlike classical bits limited to 0 or 1, qubits can exist in superposition of both states simultaneously.

  2. Superposition: A quantum property allowing qubits to exist in multiple states simultaneously until measured, enabling parallel exploration of solution paths.

  3. Entanglement: A quantum correlation between qubits where measuring one instantly provides information about others, regardless of distance.

  4. Quantum Gate: The quantum equivalent of classical logic gates, performing operations on qubits to manipulate their quantum states.

  5. Quantum Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure designed to run on quantum computers, leveraging superposition and entanglement for computational advantage.

  6. Decoherence: The process by which quantum systems lose their quantum properties through environmental interaction, causing errors in quantum computers.

  7. Quantum Error Correction (QEC): Techniques using multiple physical qubits to create reliable logical qubits by detecting and correcting errors.

  8. Physical Qubit: The actual quantum system (ion, superconducting circuit, atom) used to store quantum information, typically noisy and error-prone.

  9. Logical Qubit: A stable, reliable qubit created through error correction using multiple physical qubits.

  10. NISQ (Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum): Current era of quantum computing with dozens to thousands of qubits lacking full error correction.

  11. Quantum Supremacy/Quantum Advantage: The point when quantum computers solve problems better than all classical methods.

  12. Quantum Annealing: A specialized quantum computing approach for optimization problems, finding lowest energy states corresponding to optimal solutions.

  13. Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC): Quantum computers with sufficient error correction to perform arbitrarily long computations reliably.

  14. Shor's Algorithm: Quantum algorithm for factoring large numbers exponentially faster than classical computers, threatening current encryption.

  15. Grover's Algorithm: Quantum algorithm providing quadratic speedup for unstructured search problems.

  16. Quantum Circuit: A sequence of quantum gates applied to qubits to perform computation, analogous to classical circuits using logic gates.

  17. Coherence Time: The duration qubits maintain quantum properties before decoherence destroys superposition and entanglement.

  18. Gate Fidelity: Measure of quantum gate accuracy, indicating how closely actual operation matches intended operation.

  19. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC): Encryption algorithms resistant to attacks from both classical and quantum computers.

  20. Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS): Cloud-based platforms providing remote access to quantum computers without requiring ownership.

  21. Topological Qubit: A theoretical qubit type using exotic particles (like Majorana fermions) to store information in system topology, offering greater stability.

  22. Trapped Ion: Quantum computing approach using individual ions held in electromagnetic fields as qubits, manipulated by lasers.

  23. Superconducting Qubit: Quantum computing approach using superconducting electrical circuits operating near absolute zero as qubits.

  24. Neutral Atom: Quantum computing approach using individual atoms held in optical tweezers (laser beams) as qubits.

  25. Photonic Quantum Computing: Quantum computing approach using photons (light particles) as qubits, leveraging existing semiconductor manufacturing.


Sources & References

  1. Fortune Business Insights. "Quantum Computing Market Size, Value | Growth Analysis [2032]." January 19, 2026. https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/quantum-computing-market-104855

  2. Research Nester. "Quantum Computing Market Size | Growth Analysis 2035." October 7, 2025. https://www.researchnester.com/reports/quantum-computing-market/4910

  3. Grand View Research. "Quantum Computing Market Size | Industry Report, 2030." 2024. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/quantum-computing-market

  4. BCC Research. "Global Quantum Computing Markets Size, Share & Forecast 2030." June 24, 2025. https://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/information-technology/quantum-computing-technologies-and-global-markets.html

  5. MarketsandMarkets. "Quantum Computing Market Size, Share, Statistics, Growth, Industry Report 2030." 2025. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/quantum-computing-market-144888301.html

  6. SkyQuest. "Quantum Computing Market Size, Growth, and Strategic Outlook 2025-2032." 2025. https://www.skyquestt.com/report/quantum-computing-market

  7. Precedence Research. "Quantum Technology Market Size to Surpass USD 9.65 Bn by 2035." December 23, 2025. https://www.precedenceresearch.com/quantum-technology-market

  8. The Quantum Insider. "TQI's Expert Predictions on Quantum Technology in 2026." December 30, 2025. https://thequantuminsider.com/2025/12/30/tqis-expert-predictions-on-quantum-technology-in-2026/

  9. IBM Newsroom. "IBM Delivers New Quantum Processors, Software, and Algorithm Breakthroughs on Path to Advantage and Fault Tolerance." November 12, 2025. https://newsroom.ibm.com/2025-11-12-ibm-delivers-new-quantum-processors,-software,-and-algorithm-breakthroughs-on-path-to-advantage-and-fault-tolerance

  10. The Quantum Insider. "Quantum Computing Companies in 2026 (76 Major Players)." February 6, 2026. https://thequantuminsider.com/2025/09/23/top-quantum-computing-companies/

  11. SpinQ. "Quantum Computing Industry Trends 2025: A Year of Breakthrough Milestones and Commercial Transition." 2025. https://www.spinquanta.com/news-detail/quantum-computing-industry-trends-2025-breakthrough-milestones-commercial-transition

  12. ScienceDaily. "This tiny chip could change the future of quantum computing." December 26, 2025. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/12/251226045341.htm

  13. Quantum Frontiers. "Quantum computing in the second quantum century." December 26, 2025. https://quantumfrontiers.com/2025/12/26/quantum-computing-in-the-second-quantum-century/

  14. StartUs Insights. "Future of Quantum Computing [2026-2030]." December 8, 2025. https://www.startus-insights.com/innovators-guide/future-of-quantum-computing/

  15. Constellation Research. "2025 year in review: Quantum computing development accelerates." December 29, 2025. https://www.constellationr.com/blog-news/insights/2025-year-review-quantum-computing-development-accelerates

  16. ScienceDaily. "Scientists say quantum tech has reached its transistor moment." January 27, 2026. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/01/260127010136.htm

  17. Wikipedia. "Quantum computing." January 29, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing

  18. Wikipedia. "Timeline of quantum computing and communication." 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication

  19. Sectigo. "Quantum computing timeline & when it will be available." October 25, 2025. https://www.sectigo.com/blog/quantum-computing-timeline-things-to-know

  20. The Quantum Insider. "The History of Quantum Computing You Need to Know [2025]." September 19, 2025. https://thequantuminsider.com/2020/05/26/history-of-quantum-computing/

  21. BTQ. "Quantum Computing: A Timeline." 2024. https://www.btq.com/blog/quantum-computing-a-timeline

  22. Medium - Quantumpedia. "A Brief History of Quantum Computing." April 2, 2023. https://quantumpedia.uk/a-brief-history-of-quantum-computing-e0bbd05893d0

  23. Microsoft Azure Quantum. "What Is Quantum Computing?" 2024. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/quantum/overview-understanding-quantum-computing

  24. TechTarget. "The History of Quantum Computing: A Complete Timeline." 2024. https://www.techtarget.com/searchcio/feature/The-history-of-quantum-computing-A-complete-timeline

  25. Network World. "Top quantum breakthroughs of 2025." November 19, 2025. https://www.networkworld.com/article/4088709/top-quantum-breakthroughs-of-2025.html

  26. Quantinuum. "Quantinuum Introduces First Commercial Application for Quantum Computers." 2025. https://www.quantinuum.com/blog/quantinuum-introduces-first-commercial-application-for-quantum-computers

  27. SpinQ. "Is Practical Quantum Computing Here? Discover the Truth!" 2024. https://www.spinquanta.com/news-detail/practical-quantum-computing

  28. PwC. "Quantum computing: How businesses can prepare for the future." 2025. https://www.pwc.com/us/en/tech-effect/emerging-tech/quantum-organizations.html

  29. SpinQ. "Quantum Computing Market Trends 2025." 2025. https://www.spinquanta.com/news-detail/quantum-computing-market-trends-2025

  30. BCG. "Quantum Computing Use Cases and Business Applications." 2024. https://www.bcg.com/capabilities/digital-technology-data/emerging-technologies/quantum-computing

  31. The Quantum Insider. "Quantum Report Says Error Correction Now The Industry's Defining Challenge." November 19, 2025. https://thequantuminsider.com/2025/11/19/quantum-report-says-error-correction-now-the-industrys-defining-challenge/

  32. MDPI Electronics. "Analysis of Surface Code Algorithms on Quantum Hardware Using the Qrisp Framework." November 29, 2025. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/14/23/4707

  33. McKinsey. "Quantum error correction for fault-tolerant quantum computing." December 8, 2025. https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/tech-and-ai/our-insights/tech-forward/making-fault-tolerant-quantum-computers-a-reality

  34. Riverlane. "Quantum Error Correction: Our 2025 trends and 2026 predictions." 2025. https://www.riverlane.com/blog/quantum-error-correction-our-2025-trends-and-2026-predictions

  35. Preprints.org. "Quantum Error Correction and Fault-Tolerant Computing: Recent Progress in Codes, Decoders, and Architectures." September 26, 2025. https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202509.2149/v1

  36. Riverlane. "Riverlane report reveals scale of the Quantum Error Correction challenge." November 19, 2025. https://www.riverlane.com/press-release/riverlane-report-reveals-scale-of-the-quantum-error-correction-challenge

  37. Riverlane. "The Quantum Error Correction Report 2025." 2025. https://www.riverlane.com/quantum-error-correction-report-2025




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